Wittrock- Generative Learning Processes of the Brain

Wittrock presents a model for generative learning that reflects neural research into how knowledge is generated in the brain. Neural research has been showing how the brain generates knowledge by building it, in other words, it is not just an information processing unit. The brain operates through processes of generating meaningful relations “among concepts and between knowledge and experience” (531). And accordingly, Wittrock’s model informs teaching, which “becomes the process of leading learners to use their generative processes to construct meanings and plans of action” (531).

Wittrock’s model for generative learning goes from the neural research on generative learning processes in the brain to propose a corollary and functional model for generating learning processes in classrooms. And it is quite interesting to go from the neural research to forming a hypothesis about how people learn in the physical & social world, and then to testing the hypothesis. I’ve wondered myself how to go from my interest in the neuroscience of “embodied cognition” to forming a research hypothesis that applies the theory to educational contexts.

However, I think I’m missing something? Other than the brain research that informs it, I found the idea that the process of “generating knowledge” rather than just receiving it, to not be a radical model for how people learn. This sounds more like a scientific approach to proving something that most people (teachers) already know? But I’m simplifying. The research based on the model of generative learning has been constructed to test whether learning through constructing relationships (e.g. analogies, using graphs, constructing summaries) with the content resulted in greater comprehension than without. Not surprisingly, in most of the studies, the groups that engaged in constructing relationships between and among concepts in the content had greater learning gains.

Perhaps Wittrock does provide more than just this general hypothesis. He also clarifies and foregrounds the importance of what he calls four major processes that are involved in generating learning: Attention, Motivation, Knowledge & preconceptions, and Generation. And it does seem that more effort is still needed to dispel the view of learning as “information processing”- and move the dominant view of learning forward into an understanding of its dynamic, distributed, and emergent nature.

I also liked the explanations of relevant brain research. Wittrock describes Luria’s three functional units of the brain in detail and relates them to an educational context-

Luria’s first functional unit of the brain involves arousal and attention and “is influenced by the cortex and by conceptually driven behavior “, in the context of learning, this means that the attention and arousal within the learner is influenced by the plans and intentions of the learner.

The second unit functions to receive, analyze and store information from all of the senses. The verbal & spatial, propositional & appositional, and analytic brain mechanisms for learning and understanding information function here.

Luria’s third functional unit in the frontal lobes functions as a generative processor & integrator of the brain’s generative functions- it engages in the planning, organizing and regulating of cognition & behavior.

the one reference to how sensory stimuli are actually worked on, modified by the brain even before it is processed in the specific sensory areas of the cortex- and doesn’t this seem to go against the model proposed by Norman of cognitive processing happening through 3 different levels (sensory/visceral, behavioral, and reflective).

Betrancourt—Animation and Interactivity Principles in Multimedia Learning

An entirely useful article both analyzing the use of animations in educational contexts, and providing principles around how (design principles) and when (cognitive implications) to use animations in education.

Introduction-  “Animations” are now commonly used in multimedia-based education, and yet Betrancourt argues that animations are often applied without a clear sense of how they faciliate learning.  In this article Betrancourt provides guidelines for three main ways of addressing the central question of  “When and how should animation be used to improve learning?” (288).  These are: 1) Animation can be used to support the visualization and mental representation process, 2) to produce a cognitive conflict, and 3) to enable learners to explore a phenomenon.

1) Animation to support visualization and mental representation—This is not so different from how graphics are used but because of animation’s dynamic nature, dynamic phenomena can be visualized and represented more easily.

2) Producing cognitive conflict—Animation can offer a view of phenomena that go against conventional conceptions and thus help learners to not only view alternatives, but also the animation helps learners to view and discuss their reactions, thus making their conceptions more explicit.

3) Enable learners to explore phenomena—Because of the possibility of interactivity, an animation can help a learner to explore  phenomena through a discovery-learning approach.

The Animation & Interactivity Principles
First though, Betrancourt separates the definition of “animation” from its capacity for “interaction” in order to understand their connection- because later, she shows how interactivity is one of the key determinants of whether an animation is effective for learning or not.  Betrancourt accordingly identifies two aspects (principles) of animation: 1) its structural definition (animation principle) and 2) its affordance for interactivity (the interactivity principle).

Animation Principle: “computer animation refers to any application which generates a series of frames, so that each frame appears as an alteration of the previous one, and where the sequence of frames is determined by the designer or the user” (288).

Interactivity Principle: “Whereas control is the capacity of the learner to act upon the pace and direction of the succession of frames, interactivity is defined as the capacity to act on what will appear in the next frame by actions and parameters” (288).

What has been found?
Animation may not always make much difference over static pictures in facilitating learning, even when representing dynamic phenomena. What makes a difference is the Interactivity principle. Interactivity may overcome certain perceptual and conceptual obstacles that come up for many in attending to animations in that interactivity allows for user control.  Being able to control the animation (mainly the pace) improved the perception about the material being more enjoyable, AND enable learners to manage their cognitive resources (attention and processing) thus helping to manage the perceptual and conceptual overload.

There may be many other factors determining the effectiveness and limitations of animation and interactivity. Betrancourt surveys some of these, such as the factor of the form of representations (the conveyance of different forms of representational, symbolic, and verbal information), and also the issue of prior knowledge and different visuo-spatial abilities among learners. Animations may also have 3 functions (Schnotz, 2003) with regards to building of mental models in the learner, these are the enabling, facilitating or inhibiting functions.

Implications for Instructional Design- When should animations be used?
1)    When the concept or phenomenon depicted is dynamic.
2)    When learners are novices in a domain so they can’t form a mental model (enabling function), or when the cognitive load they are faced with is high (facilitating function).

Principles to Design With
1)    Apprehension principle- external features should be clear and directly perceived, without any cosmetic features not germane to the content
2)    Congruence principle- changes in the animation need not be realistic, they should be congruent with changes in the conceptual model rather than the phenomenon itself
3)    Interactivity principle- information is better comprehended if learner has control over pace and flow of animation
4)    Attention guiding principle- signal the perceptually salient features of the display (through verbal commentary or signs such as arrows)
5)    Flexibility principle- animation should be available flexibly according to need of learner and information in animation should be clearly described to avoid redundancy between static and animated visual material (??? Don’t understand this principle?)

Dan Saffer—Designing for Interaction, Chapt.s 4 & 5

Chapt.4- Design Research
Design research embodies a collection of methods that enable designers to understand the users and their environments in order to better develop products and applications for them. Moreover, unless the designer is an “intuitive genius”, there is no way for a designer to appreciate or know about so many diverse groups of people, environments and content areas- the only way is to do some research to draw upon the user’s perspective and knowledge.

Some common methods for design research have been drawn from various field such as marketing, theater, anthropology, sociology, and science research. The methodologies can be seen to involve 3 components: 1) Go to where the users are, don’t ask them to come to your lab as you want to be in their natural environment, 2) Talk with them, and then 3) Record your observations, document, write it down.

Some notes: the research should be conducted in an ethical manner that respects privacy, time and effort of the research participants. Research doesn’t have to be a long drawn out process, but designers should observe a representative group of users (between 10 to 40 persons).

Guidelines for Observation:
Look for Patterns- of behavior, responses, explanations, stories, uses. (For a phenomenon to be a pattern, should be seen at least 3 times.)

The Methods:
Observation (Fly on the wall, shadowing, contextual inquiry)
Interviews, talking with users through:
• Directed storytelling,
• The unfocus group,
• Role playing,
• Desk, purse, briefcase tour
Activities, have users engage in an activity:
• Collaging,
• Modeling
• Drawing their experiences
Self-reporting:
• Journals,
• Beeper studies,
• Photo/video journals

Brainstorming

At this point, designers should have all the research and problem definition documents close at hand and in view for reference and inspiration. Then the design group may start through some exercises as warm-ups. Then brainstorming itself during which try to generate as many ideas as possible.

Chapter 6: The Craft of Interaction Design
This chapter gives an overview of how designers work through models and documentation to communicate their vision and understanding of the project, usually at this point, to the client.

Some common methods of “representing research data” are through:
• Flow Models to show a process or problem
• Diagrams to show relationship sets and connections
• Personas to give a sense of how the product might be used by a typical user
• Scenarios to imagine design concepts in use
• Sketches and Models to visualize concepts and ideas that are still being formed
• Storyboards to help illustrate the product or service in use
• Task Analyses- list of all tasks that users will be engaged in
• Task Flow show the logical connections among tasks and steps taken, to show HOW a user accomplishes what s/he wants to with the product or service (flow chart format)
• Use Cases- another way to imagine how a set of users will be using the product
• Mood Boards- collage like display that illustrates the mood, emotional landscape of the product
• Wireframes- documents that show structure, information hierarchy, functionality, and content- the wireframe also conveys the rough form of a product, its navigation controls, content, functionality.
• Prototypes- tangible, to-scale models